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• Question 151:

  In spite of an Impressive presence of Greek women In undergraduate and graduate business programs both in Greece and In other countries over the last decade, negative stereotyping of women managers.persists id Greek culture and may explain, at least In part, the well documented fact that women are still under-represented h the Greek bus ness community.

  A. negative stereotyping of women managers persists in Greek culture

  B. Greek culture negatively stereotyping women managers persists,

  C. persistent negative stereotypes in Greek culture about women managers,

  D. there are still negative stereotypes about women managers In Greek culture.

  E. women managers are still subject to negative stereotyping in Greek culture,

  Correct Answer: A

• Question 152:

  In none of the archaeological sites where floor mosaics were found, not even in those one that like Alarna or Gaanip had well-preserved mosaics in them, there was any evidence of Greek artisans having worked there.

  A. ones that like Alarna or Gaanip had well-preserved mosaics in them, there was

  B. like Alarna or Gaanip. with well-preserved mosaics, was there

  C. such as Alarna or Gaanip with well-preserved mosaics in them, there was

  D. that, like Alarna or Gaanip, had well-preserved mosaics, was there

  E. ones like Alarna or Gaanip having well-preserved mosaics, was there

  Correct Answer: B

• Question 153:

  The passage most strongly indicates that the author would agree with which of the following statements?

  A. None of the subjects in the various studies other than the 1998 study who seemed to commit the conjunction fallacy actually did commit it.

  B. People who have studied the mathematical principles of probability are very unlikely to commit the conjunction fallacy.

  C. The conjunction fallacy is rarely committed outside of betting contexts.

  D. Many of the subjects in the various studies In addition to the 1998 study probably committed the conjunction fallacy.

  E. The conceptions of "probability" that underlie everyday use of the word rarely, if ever, conform to the mathematical principles of probability.

  Correct Answer: E

  Mathematical principles of probability entail that for any future event, the probability that it will occur Is at least as great as the probability that both it and some other given event will occur. Consider, for example, the following statements that were shown to subjects in a 1998 study. X The percentage of adolescent smokers In Texas will decrease at least 15% from current levels by September 1, 1999. Y The cigarette tax in Texas will increase by $1.00 per pack in 1999. Z The cigarette tax in Texas will increase by $1.00 per pack in 1999, and the percentage of adolescent smokers in Texas will decrease at least 15% from current levels by September 1, 1999. Z("Kand X") could not have been more probable than X. Nevertheless, many of the subjects judged Zto be more probable than X. This mistaken form of reasoning, displayed with surprising frequency in various studies in addition to the 1998 study, is known as the "conjunction fallacy." A number of researchers have offered alternative explanations for the seeming manifestations of the mistake, thus arguing that the fallacy is less widely committed than the various studies would indicate. Some have claimed that research subjects can take "probability" in a sense that does not conform to the mathematical principles of probability. Detailed descriptions of some such conceptions of "probability" have been developed under the names of "confirmation" and "support." Other researchers would claim, correctly, that subjects shown Z(" Kand X") and ^simultaneously will sometimes think of Xas involving the negation of Y--as a claim that the percentage of adolescent smokers in Texas will decrease, but without the $1.00 increase in the cigarette tax. However, although the subjects in the 1998 study were to consider Xand Z simultaneously, the statements were presented in terms of bets rather than explicit requests for judgments of relative probability. Subjects were asked to choose between Zand X, with a chance of winning $50.00 if the chosen statement turned out to be true. Terms such as "most probable," "likely," etc., were thus avoided, and the interpretation of X\n conjunction with the negation of Kwas thereby eliminated. And with these alternative explanations eliminated, many of the subjects nonetheless bet on Zrather than

  X:

• Question 154:

  Which of the following most logically completes the argument?

  Many advocate cost-benefit assessment of environmental policies. Although some costs and benefits are already in monetary terms, others, such as effects on the quality of people's lives, are not. It has been proposed that these costs and benefits be assigned monetary values based on what people say they would pay to avoid or gain them.

  However, while this appears to treat everyone's interests alike, it is biased against the interests of certain groups because

  A. cost-benefit analysis as a method of assessing policies was not originally designed to be used to assess environmental policies

  B. a small monetary amount has a greater significance for people who have fewer financial resources

  C. very few environmental policies provide substantial benefits without significant costs

  D. any environmental policy will have costs and benefits that cannot possibly be known in advance

  E. no one can expect to live forever or to maintain perfect health, no matter what environmental policies are in effect

  Correct Answer: B

• Question 155:

  Which of the following is the best example of the profound changes in corporate strategy and structure discussed In the second paragraph?

  A. Increased authority of a department manager over the staff of another department

  B. Appointment of a manager to oversee all contact among departments within a company

  C. Initiation of collaborative joint projects by staff from different departments

  D. Assignment of managerial tasks to nonmanagerial departmental staff

  E. increased emphasis on competition among departments

  Correct Answer: C

  Managerial work is undergoing enormous and rapid change. With little precedent to guide them, managers are coping with the fading away of hierarchy and the blurring of clear distinctions of title, task, department, even corporation. Traditional sources of power are being eroded as levels of complexity and interdependence increase. Competitive pressures from recent business downturns are forcing corporations to adopt flexible strategies and structures, including reductions In management staff and increased use of performance-based (rather than longevity-based) rewards. In a more profound change, in a growing number of companies horizontal ties between peers are replacing vertical ties as channels of activity and communication. Companies are asking departmental staff to play a more strategic role, with greater cross-departmental collaboration. Some organizations are forming strategic alliances with customers and outside suppliers that bring external relationships inside, where they can influence company policy. Fundamentally, the new managerial work involves new ways of obtaining and using power. Position, title, and authority are no longer adequate tools when managers have to work cooperatively with other departments and even other companies. The ability of managers to get things done depends more on the number of networks in which they are included than on their rank in a hierarchy. In the past, formal structures and the emphasis on rank were more limiting. For example, access to information and the ability to get informal backing were often confined to the few officially sanctioned contact points between departments or between the company and Its suppliers or customers. Today, official barriers between departments and between companies are disappearing while Informal networks grow in importance. The new corporation has many more channels for action, strategic pathways that ignore the chain of command. These strategic pathways also serve to diffuse power. As the number of ways to combine resources Increases, the ability to command diminishes. Alternative paths of communication and resource access erode the authority of those in the nominal chain of command. In other words, greater speed and flexibility undermine hierarchy. As more and more of the strategic action takes place in these informal networks, the Jobs that focus inward on particular departments decline In power.

• Question 156:

  Plague bacilli, the microorganisms that cause bubonic plague, are typically carried from rodents to humans by fleas. Although the bubonic plague epidemic that devastated Europe in the Middle Ages probably originated with certain species of plague-infected rodents from central Asia, the nomadic peoples of central Asia never contracted plague.

  Therefore, since they undoubtedly had some contact with infected rodents, it is likely that these central Asian peoples had physiological immunity against plague bacilli.

  Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

  A. Unlike flea-bearing rodents, which can actually contract bubonic plague, the fleas themselves are merely carriers of the disease.

  B. Certain types of plague can pass directly from one human being to another, without flea or rodent intermediaries.

  C. The plague-infected rodent species that were common in central Asia did not spread to Europe during the Middle Ages.

  D. Plague bacilli were spread from central Asia to Europe by rats inadvertently transported along with tradable goods.

  E. The smell of horses, which were a central feature of life among the nomadic peoples of central Asia, is repellent to the fleas that live on rodents.

  Correct Answer: E

• Question 157:

  On Monday in Los Angeles, a federal judge prohibitively banned midfreauencv active sonar in the granting of a temporary restraining order because the sound waves could hurt whales.

  A. On Monday in Los Angeles, a federal judge prohibitively banned midfrequency active sonar in the granting of a temporary restraining order

  B. A federal judge in Los Angeles, granting a temporary restraining order, banning the use of midfrequency active sonar on Monday

  C. Granting a temporary restraining order, on Monday, the use of midfrequency active sonar was banned by a federal judge in Los Angeles

  D. Granted a temporary restraining order, midfrequency active sonar was being banned on Monday in Los Angeles by a federal Judge

  E. On Monday, a federal judge in Los Angeles granted a temporary restraining order banning the use of midfrequency active sonar

  Correct Answer: E

• Question 158:

  The first two sentences of the second paragraph serve primarily to

  A. provide an example of a species that relies on the help of another species in defending itself against a particular predator

  B. provide a point of reference against which the author's description of a related phenomenon can be compared

  C. introduce a phenomenon that casts doubt on experimental results described later in the passage

  D. introduce the phenomenon that the experiment described later in the passage is designed to explain

  E. offer a conventional but probably inaccurate view of how many plants defend themselves from predators

  Correct Answer: D

  Parasitic wasps propagate by injecting their eggs into a caterpillar that then becomes paralyzed as the eggs inside develop into wasp larvae. The wasp larvae kill the caterpillar host as they feed on it, form cocoons, and finally develop into wasps. In attempting to discover how such wasps detect the presence of the caterpillar hosts that are so critical to the wasps' propagation, researchers have uncovered an intriguing defense mechanism developed by the plants on which the caterpillars feed. When chewed on, many plants release volatile compounds from both damaged and undamaged tissues. When these compounds are toxic to the insects that feed on the plants, they can help defend the plants from such attacks. However, the plants on which the wasps' caterpillar hosts feed have evolved an even more complex defense: the caterpillar-infested plants appear to release volatile chemicals that attract parasitic wasps, which then prey on the caterpillars. Scientists originally suspected that the wasps were attracted by an odor, reminiscent of cut grass, that is released as the caterpillar feeds, but a recent study suggests that a different set of volatile attractants is involved. In this study, when researchers used a razor blade to mimic caterpillar damage on the leaves, only grassy odors were emitted, not the volatile compounds that attracted wasps. However, when oral secretions from the caterpillars were applied to these damaged leaves, the leaves released the wasp attractants several hours later. Further tests revealed that oral secretions placed on the razor-damaged leaves stimulated the release of such attractants, making the plants as attractive to wasps as plants that had suffered actual caterpillar damage. These results suggest that chemicals from the caterpillar must be present for these attractants to be released and that unlike the grassy scent, which emanates only as the caterpillar on the plant, the wasp attractants are produced several hours after the attack and persist for several hours, perhaps days. Researchers have launched additional studies to determine whether the wasps' capacity to prey on caterpillars can be enhanced to the extent that the wasps could be used as a natural pesticide to "police" plants and protect them from crop- destroying caterpillars.

• Question 159:

  A study examining ninety large cities found that in those with more kilometers of bicycle paths and roadway bicycle lanes per capita, higher percentages of the population commute to work by bicycle. For this reason the study concluded that adding bicycle paths and lanes is an effective way to encourage commuters to bicycle rather than drive.

  Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the reasoning in the study?

  A. The higher the percentage of a city's population commutes by bicycle, the stronger political pressure there is for the city to add bicycle paths and lanes.

  B. A large percentage of urban bicycle commuters commute via roadway bicycle lanes but use bicycle paths mainly for recreation.

  C. Even in communities with extensive bicycle paths and roadway bicycle lanes, many commuters drive rather than bicycle to work because of the perceived danger of bicycling in traffic.

  D. On average, cities with climates more pleasant for bicycling have fewer kilometers of bicycle lanes and paths per capita than those with harsher climates.

  E. City residents are unlikely to commute along bicycle paths or lanes that do not provide direct, efficient routes between their homes and their workplaces.

  Correct Answer: A

• Question 160:

  The primary purpose of the passage is to

  A. explain how, in certain types of markets, gray marketing can improve margins and profits for manufacturers and authorized retailers

  B. identify the effects, both beneficial and detrimental, that gray markets have on manufacturers and authorized retailers

  C. outline a course of action that manufacturers and authorized retailers can take to gain benefits from gray marketing

  D. present the results of a study that indicates that under most conditions gray markets are beneficial to manufacturers and authorized retailers

  E. provide arguments for and against the view that gray markets are beneficial to manufacturers and authorized retailers

  Correct Answer: A

  Manufacturers and retailers tend to look askance at gray markets, where products are sold at cut-rate prices outside their authorized distribution channels. Manufacturers fear that gray markets will undercut margins and tarnish brand names. Retailers fear that they will siphon away customers and erode prices. A new study indicates, however, that gray marketing actually benefits manufacturers and retailers in markets that meet two criteria: first, sharp differences exist in consumers' price sensitivity; second, large numbers of consumers are price-insensitive. In such markets, the low prices of the gray market will attract the most price-sensitive customers. The authorized channels will then compete only for the remaining customers--those who are insensitive to price but sensitive to service. When that happens, the structure of competition and the economics of the market shift. The authorized retailers, freed from having to cater to the bargain hunters, can raise their prices and focus on service. If the concentration of price-insensitive shoppers is high enough, the resulting increase in prices will more than offset the loss of sales to the bargain hunters. The margins and profits of the authorized retailers will increase, and manufacturers will, as a result, be able to boost their wholesale prices.